An Investigation into the Effect of Organisation on Memory

An Investigation into the Effect of Organisation on Memory Research Previous research has been done by other psychologists into the affect of organisation on memory. In 1953 Bousfield asked participants to try and learn 60 words consisting of 4 categories, (animals, peoples names, professions and vegetables) with 15 examples of each all mixed up. Bousfield found that when participants free recalled (recalled in any order) they tended to cluster similar items, Eg; if someone recalled onion it was very likely that other vegetables followed. Although participants had not been told of the categories, the fact they recalled in clusters suggested that they had tried to organise the data. Bousfield called this trend categorical clustering. Another study took place in 1967 by Mandler, where subjects were given lists of random words and asked to sort them into a given number of categories (between 2 and 7). Once sorted the participants were asked to recall as many of the words as possible. The results showed that recall was poorest for those who used 2 categories and increased steadily by about 4 words per extra category. Those with 7 categories recalled approximately 20 more words than those who used 2. Mandler argued that the great number of categories used, the greater amount of organisation was imposed on the list. However my particular study is inspired and based on a later one by Bowers et al in 1969, in which data wads organised by conceptual hierarchy. In this study participants were required to learn a list of words which were arranged in a hierarchical structure. See appendix 1. The participants studied were split into 2 groups, on group were given the list in the correct hierarchical form, the other group were given the same words in a similar structure however the words were mixed up. Short-term memory is believed to have a capacity of 7 ±2 chunks of information, which can remain there for approximately 20 seconds without rehearsal. Chunking is a process that apparently increases the capacity of short-term memory by relating and combining the incoming information to knowledge that we already possess in long term memory. In chunking we organise information giving it a structure and meaning tit did not already have, so although we can only recall around 7 chunks a meaningful chunk can be very large Rationale ========= The results of Bowers study showed that the list organised by conceptual hierarchical order did indeed promote a higher recall of words than the list arranged in a random order. The organised list proved to have an average of 65% words recalled correctly whereas the disorganised list only recalled an average of 19% correctly. My study is based on the above conceptual hierarchy model. My model will mimic Bowers by having a main heading which splits into several subheadings in a hierarchical form, these headings will then have a list of appropriate words underneath. However, as Bower used the theme of minerals, splitting into categories such as alloys and metals etc. I am going to use the general theme of food splitting in fruits, salads and vegetables. Aim === The aim is to investigate the affect of organisation on memory by finding out if people remember more words from an organised list than they do from a disorganised list of words. Hypothesis ========== As there has been previous research into the affects of organisation on memory I will do a 1 tailed hypothesis.  ¨ People will remember more words from an organised list of words than from a disorganised, Null hypothesis ===============  ¨ There will be no difference between the number of words recalled from the organised list compared with the disorganised list. Any difference will be due to chance. Method Design ====== For this type of study into memory I will use an experimental method in the style of a laboratory experiment because I feel it is the most suitable method. It allows the precise control of variables and enables it to be replicated easily. It is the aim of this study to find out which variables are responsible for affecting memory. Its is only by the experimental method we can alter and control these variables. The design will be independent measures, which means that it consists of 2 groups of different individuals Therefore it is an independent measures design because we will obviously need 2 separate groups of individuals those who do the organised list and those who do the disorganised. The task takes place in the recreational centre in the college. This is in the participants own settings rather than in a laboratory. This should reduce the stress and pressure of the situation and promote natural behaviour. Variables ========= The variables are controlled whether the participant is given the organised list or the disorganised list to memorize.  ¨ Independent variable The independent variable is the factor which I have manipulated and controlled. In this case it is whether the list of words is organized into categories or whether it is disorganized.  ¨ Dependant variable The dependant variable is what is affected by the independent variable, it is also measurable. This is how successfully people remember. I can measure the dependent variable by recording how many words are recalled. *The two lists contain the same words, Universal words were chosen for the lists so that no one would have any expertise or advantage over anyone else. The theme of food is a universal topic that everyone has certain degree of knowledge about, less obvious everyday foods were also used to prevent people simply guessing at common foods. Sample and Participants ======================= In order to conduct my research I will need some people to study. The participants used are called a sample. The type of sample I have chosen to use is called an opportunity sample. This means that I will use anyone that is available at the time the experiment is conducted providing they are over the age of 16. I chose this method because it is the most convenient; I will study a total of 40 people. 20 will do the organised list (consisting of 10 male and 10 female) and the other 20 will do the disorgansied list (also consisting of 10 male and 10 female). The participants will all be students of Stafford College, therefore should be of similar ages and social background. Apparatus =========  ¨ Organized list Appendix 2  ¨ Disorganized list Appendix 3  ¨ Blank paper  ¨ Pen  ¨ Stopwatch Ethics ======  ¨ Participants must be over 16 years of age.  ¨ Participants should give informed consent to take part.  ¨ Confidentiality is of the utmost importance no names will be recorded  ¨ Subjects are free to withdrawn from the study at any point, even after it has been completed they can request their results are not used.  ¨ To avoid any psychological harm or damage to self-esteem, participants should be praised and thanked for taking part.  ¨ Subjects will be fully debriefed to the true nature of the study after completion. Procedure ========= The study is carried out in the recreational area of a college. Myself and my fellow researcher will approach students and by following the standard instructions (Appendix 4) will ask them if they would mind participating in the study. If they agree then they will be provided with either an organised list or a disorganised list of words to memorise. The participants are given 2 minutes to study the list of words, this is then taken off them and another 2 minutes is given for them to free recall and write down as many words as they can remember on a blank piece of paper. When this time is up each participant is fully debriefed. Each potential participant is approached addressed debriefed the same way using the prepared standardized instructions (appendix 4) This is so that what I say to each person doesnt have an influence on their behaviour or their ability to recall data. Controls All variables excluding the independent variable must be controlled and kept consistent for each participant. This will ensure the results obtained are as accurate and reliable as possible.  ¨ Each participant is given the same duration to memorize and recall the data, namely 2 minutes  ¨ The task will be carried out in the recreational area of the college for each participant.  ¨ The researcher will communicate with the participant using the prepared standardized instructions so all participants are treated the same.  ¨ Each participant will be debriefed and thanked in the same manner using the standardized instructions. Table of Results - The tables below show the number of words recalled by each participant for both the organized and disorganized list. Organized List Disorganized List Participant No. Words recalled Participant No. Words recalled 1 16 1 6 2 16 2 6 3 17 3 7 4 14 4 7 5 17 5 5 6 15 6 6 7 14 7 6 8 16 8 5 9 15 9 6 10 16 10 7 11 16 11 6 12 12 12 5 13 15 13 6 14 16 14 4 15 14 15 5 16 17 16 7 17 14 17 6 18 13 18 7 19 18 19 7 20 16 20 6 Measures of Central Tendency - Organized List Disorganized List Mean 15.35 6 Median 16 6 Mode 16 6 Range 6 3 15.35  ¾Ã‚ ¾ = 0.697 * 100 70% is the average number of words recalled from the organized list. 22 6  ¾Ã‚ ¾ = 0.272 * 100 27% is the average number of words recalled from the disorganized list. 22 Results Analysis The results displayed in the table clearly show that when words are arranged in an organized structure it does improve memory and the ability to store and recall information. The average number of words recalled from the organized list is 15.35, thats 70% of all the words recalled. Whereas the list arranged in a random order only recalled an average of 6 words, thats only 27% of the total words recalled. These figures show what an obvious effect organization imposes on memory. It seems to apparently increase memory capacity. Short-term memory has a limited capacity of approximately 7 ± 2 slots of information. This is supported by the fact that an average of 6 words were recalled from the disorganized list. However an average of 15 words were recalled from the disorganized list, this is much more data than can be stored in short term memory. This is evidence that a process called chunking took place. Chunking is a process which involves relating and combining information to knowledge already stored in long term memory. This apparently increases the capacity of short term memory by giving data a structure and meaning it did not already process therefore increasing the size of a meaningful chunk. So although we only have the ability to store 7 ± 2 slots of information in STM, A slot can be very large. In the case of the organized list, chunking would most likely occur by relating and combining the information into the already structured groups of salads, fruits and vegetables. From the results I have obtained I can confidently conclude that my hypothesis can be accepted that a greater number of words are indeed recalled from an organized list compared with the same list of words in a random order. I can therefore reject my null hypothesis that the results produced were not due to chance but due to the structure that organization imposes. Discussion -  ¨ Implications of the study My results support the hypothesis that people do indeed recall more words from an organized list than from a disorganized list. The average number of words recalled from the organized list was 15.35 compared to just 6 from the disorganized list, so this is clearly true. My study was based on a previous study by Bowers in 1969; The results I produced are comparable to those obtained by Bowers. Table comparing the result of my study and Bowers study My Study Bowers Study Average words recalled % of Words Average words recalled % of Words Organized 16.35 70% 16.9 65% Disorganized 6 27% 4.94 19% The results are quite similar although my results have a higher percentage of words recalled for both the organized and disorganized list compared to Bowers results, however it must be taken into account that more words were involved in Bowers list: 26 compared to the 22 words used on my list. This will have an affect on memory as the participant is challenged to remember more words. Also different themes were used, Bower used that of minerals Whereas mine involved food. This could affect the ability to recall especially if some of Bowers participants had more specialized knowledge then others, the same can be said for the theme of food. With these factors in mind, on the whole my results are similar to those obtained by Bowers.  ¨ Validity The study does show that organisation can aid how effectively we remember data and can be regarded as accurate and reliable. However the experimental method that was used lacks in ecological validity. Although the study took place in a recreational area, so therefore in the participants own settings, it is not however a natural everyday scenario to need to remember words in this manner, it is an artificial situation. Apart from these factors I did attempt to make the test as valid as possible. For example I tried to use everyday universal words that people would be familiar with and no one would have any particular advantage or knowledge over anyone else. Also I tried to make the variables as clear as possible because variables can affect peoples memory ie. Whether they are given the organised or disorganised list, However it is crucial that they werent told what the list is as itd give the participant some insight into the true nature of the experiment and give them an advantage. Overall, I think that my study is a good representation of the affect organisation has on memory.  ¨ Improving Validity To improve the validity of this research it needs to be performed in a more realistic scenario, an idea f this would be to change the method to make it more valid. I could do this by doing my research in the form of exam revision so it would be more like a field experiment. I could do this by creating a situation in which 2 groups are given one week to study for a small test. One group is encouraged to revise using an organised method, structured into categories and subheadings, whereas the other group are left to their own methods. Another idea is to use the same method used by Rubin and Olsen. They tried to create a valid test by asking university students to recall professor and they subjects they taught by giving one group an organised list to study and the other a list in random order.  ¨ Reliability I used the experimental method in the style of a laboratory experiment. This method is usually very reliable and accurate as it allows manipulation and full control over the variables (i.e. Whether the participant is given the organized or disorganized list) I can be fairly sure that if I repeated my research I would get very similar results to what I have obtained. I had strict controls and kept factors constant, such as time to memorize and recall, this should ensure that results recorded are accurate. I also used a set of standardized instructions and procedure which I followed when asking a student to participate, this was to make sure that what I said to each person didnt have any effect on their ability to recall words. However, the sampling method used called opportunity sampling can be seen as biased because the researcher chooses who to take part and who doesnt.  ¨ Improving Reliability To improve reliability I could have used the sampling technique of matched groups. This consists of 2 groups of people which are matched by age gender background etc. i.e. for every person there is someone to match them in the opposite group, Also I could use a wider range of participants of different ages and people from different parts of the country (they would still need to be matched for the other group) Also I could test a larger number of people than 20 per list.  ¨ Generalization of Findings A generalization could be made from my results that organization does indeed prove to increase the capacity of memory and the ability to recall. However it needs to be taken into account that the study was conducted in one small area and participants were all students of similar age and social background, so it can be argued that it is unreasonable and inaccurate to generalize and apply the results to everyone. For example, it would not be reasonable to apply the results of a small select group of young adults to the older generation. The study on the whole was not a natural scenario so it isnt reasonable to conclude that it is how people would behave in real life.  ¨ Application to Everyday Life This study could be applied to help people in everyday life. Some ideas of how it could be used is to aid in exam revision for example, by revising from notes arranged in an organised manner should organize the date in the brain and promote better recall in exams and therefore better exam results. Another idea is that it could help people with learning difficulties, if they learn from material arranged in an organized and structured format using subheadings etc it will give it a structure and meaning it did not already have and it should be easier to learn and store the information.

A Look at Healthypeople 2020 Health Disparities

Healthy People 2020 Laura Siegel Do you know someone with a mental illness? Do you know someone who has been turned down for employment because of having a mental illness? Do you have a family member or a patient that has a mental illness and has experienced the challenges of trying to find a service that hasn’t been reduced or completely cut? The challenges of dealing with mental illness in our country are among the highest of all diseases, and the vast array of mental disorders are one of the most common causes of disability.According to Healthy People 2020, 1 in 4 adults in the United States had a mental disorder in the past year typically being either depression or anxiety and 1 in 17 had a serious mental illness. * Reading the above statistics was the catalyst for my decision to choose mental illness as my leading health problem for this paper. In addition, I have experienced mental illness in my family and all too aware of many of the challenges that come with having or knowing someone with a mental illness.Also, working in an Emergency Department setting, patients with mental illness frequently come to the ED in crisis and it seems that much of the time, their crisis due to practical or logistical reason. * As a nurse working in the emergency room, having the tools needed to effectively respond to the needs of patients with mental illness is crucial. These patients often present to the ED because of medication noncompliance or lack of proper information or resources.As a result, these same patients also present with medical problems, because without appropriate resources or medication, people with mental illness often engage in high risk behaviors that might involve self destruction, drug abuse or violence. * Dealing with patients with mental illness can often be challenging, scary and leaving healthcare workers feeling burned out.It is my belief that if nurses, physicians and ancillary staff are properly educated, resulting in people with mental illness being de-stigmatized, everyone will be better off. Laura Siegel CINAHL

Choosing Good Essay Writing Topics Samples

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Cultural Conflict in Schools

Cultural Conflict in Schools Introduction This paper will examine the elements of a cultural conflict that popularly occur in schools. As a teacher of a school with learners from many countries, there are numerous perceptions and ideas that conflict. This paper will focus on one incident relating to a child from a religious home and one from a non-religious home. A conflict that ensued whilst teaching about dinosaurs and its implications for science and religion is discussed. The Incident: Evolution versus Creation In a class where learners were taught about dinosaurs and the basic elements of our world, there was the need to show that the dinosaurs inhabited our world for some hundreds of millions of years before humans showed up. This is important in laying the foundation for future studies in the natural sciences. Hence, there was the need to demonstrate the nature of dinosaurs in the Jurassic Age and previous ages that came before it. Then, after a few lessons, one child from a very religious and traditional home with Judeo-Christian values rose up to question whether there was direct evidence that dinosaurs existed, because his parents and Sunday school religious class had taught him that human beings were created by God in the Garden of Eden. Another student from a secular home with a father and mother involved in science stated clearly without mincing his words that the Bible is a fraud and there is no evidence that the world was created in seven days and the world was younger than a few thousands of years. Basically, this would have been brushed off as a minor incident. However, the secular child had a lot of information about the subject. And he had evidence to prove some of Darwins advanced concepts and theories. He could articulate his views very well and there was a form of competition in the class. The smarter religious children countered him and those from other religious backgrounds started quoting the Bible about the fact that the world was created, and destroyed by the floods of Noah and we not being in a position to understand what existed before Noah and the floods. The secular children stated that Noah and his wife and three sons could not have populated the world after the flood. The raised issues of how Adam and Eve managed to populate the world if they were the only people in the world. These were extremely deep questions that provided an issue with the faith of people who have stayed religious all their lives and many got confused. The exchanges went back and forth and the class was heavily divided. This division reflected the broader divisions in America which is between conservatives and liberals and it became apparent to me that if nothing is done to address the cultural differences, there would be a problem that could go far beyond the class. This is because the children were most likely to report what they had heard to their parents and this was going to create a problem that could cause an administrative problem in the school. Therefore, it occurred to me that the problem was one relating to values, rather than mere childs play or arguments between equals. Reasons behind the Incident Culture is the software of the mind and it shapes the way people think and understand things[CITATION Hof12 \l 1033 ]. Literally speaking, culture helps to define what is sane and what is insane. It shapes what is acceptable and norms. Thus, culture has been defined as the way a group of people live and the relatively stable cultural practices that define a group[ CITATION Sch13 \l 1033 ]. The human being is programed to build up perceptions and worldviews over time. In doing this, people are supposed to give credence to some kind of authority or power over them. This would differentiate between right and wrong and define the parameters of actions and perception of information. For generations, people have relied on spiritual authority. Countries and communities have relied on priests and other persons with spiritual authority to define what is right and wrong and set the parameters for society. This led to religious values and rituals that define different societies around the world. Any attempt to go outside these frameworks and processes was considered to be blasphemous or heretic. History has shown that many people in Christian Europe were burnt in the stake for questioning the fundamental values of Christianity and one of them is the creation story. Anything that is said about creation that seemed to be in bad taste was suppressed by the Catholic Church and its ag encies. However, in todays world where there is a liberal constitution, anyone can say or do anything s/he wants about religion. Therefore, there are no real punishments to blasphemy or heresy. This means people could say and do whatever they wanted to. And the parents of these children could choose whatever they could say. Hence, they lived in their homes and were exposed to ideas of their parents. On the other hand, the growth of science and technology has provided alternative explanations to the genesis of society. Charles Darwin and other scientists have explained how the world was formed and this provides an alternative thesis to the creation story and how the world was supposed to have come to being. Therefore, alternative explanations could be put forth to justify different things in our world. These ideas have created a secular world and a religious world. These two worlds have their own followers and their followers, are equally protected by our constitution to teach their children what is right. Therefore, the class was opened to people from all backgrounds and all valid views and ideas were to be shared in the class. Thus, it became apparent to me that the real problem had to do with the differences in views of the world and its origins. The clash was because different people had been made to revere different authorities of information and of the world. Therefore, they were all bound to see things differently and build different values. The religious children saw their Bible as the main source of authority and the Word of God which must be revered and obeyed. The secular children saw the Bible as a cultural tool that guided a previous generation but not them. Therefore, they saw their views to be compatible with the realities rather than the Bible. Hence, the conflict was somewhat legitimate and it resulted from the natural conditioning of the minds of the children. How to Resolve the Problem The fundamental premise of the problem is that our world in todays world is heterogenous. Unlike a totalitarian country where the truth is one and absolute, the only way out was to create an avenue for difference to thrive in the classroom. In 15th Century Europe, it would have been completely proper to expel the children who viewed the dinosaur as the earliest creatures that evolved into modern creatures. This is because they denied Creation as per the Christian context. On the other hand, in the Soviet Union or todays North Korea, it would be completely acceptable to report these Christian children for upholding the view that the dinosaur was a creature that existed before Noah and the flood. Since Christianity was banned and the Bible was illegal. However, in todays America and in most parts of the world, it is unethical and inappropriate to take action against anyone. As a matter of fact, telling any of the children that he was wrong on his views would have been a breach of the constitutional rights of these children and their families. And their families could have come to the school to take action against the school. This is because the First Amendment of the US Constitution provides freedom of speech and freedom of conscience. This means parents can hold on to any view they consider to be appropriate and proper. The Fourteenth Amendment also gives parents the right to family relationships. This means any parent can teach his or her child any idea that is considered fit by them. Hence, the school has no power or right to instill anything in the child that is against the parents values. Therefore, it was a dangerous thing to take a stand on the topic and issue and support any of the views against the other. In effect, the right thing to do is to move the debate from an issue of whether Creation happened or not or a competition between whether Science provides a better alternative to Religion or not. This is because the constitution and laws of the land require relativism in the society. This implies that there are no absolute truths in our generation and in our country. Truth is based on what people value and what their cultures are. As educators, our job is therefore limited to the need to ensure that children thrive in their respective cultural systems in order to achieve the best and most appropriate goals and ends in life. This meant that the solution to this problem was to focus on the generally accepted facts and obvious truth. Like (1) the dinosaurs existed (2) the dinosaurs are now extinct (3) deposits of the remains of dinosaurs provide fossil fuels and this is the basis for petroleum. There was a non-judgmental view of the comments and opinions of the religious child as against the secular child. This only sought to divide the class further. Then, the class had to move on to provide a lesson on the need for mutual respect. This is because we might be different in the opinions and views we have as people. However, we have common values and standards that bring us together as human beings. We must respect them and focus on our lives and try to be the best we can be. Based on this, there was nothing to contend over in the class and focus was returned to the main issue under discussions – dinosaurs, their extinction, sources of fossil fuel and how todays world thrives on that aspect of history. Later on, they would encounter biology and advanced religion and they would have to decide what they believe. That is the essence of education – to enable people to become the best they can be within their own unique cultural and ideological framework or context. Conclusion Culture is fundamentally premised on the way people think and it is reflected by the series of values and authorities they grow to accept. This case at hand involved an issue relating to the dinosaurs, which threatened to turn into a debate on how the world came into being. This brought the religious up against the secular. However, the laws of the land mandates that there is freedom of religion and freedom to raise families. Hence, parents have the right to inculcate their values into their children. The classroom was not a place for the furtherance of any childs view over the other. Therefore, the right thing to do was to cut the debate and present universally accepted facts about the issue at hand and teach the learners to respect each others views. As they grow, they would have the right to take the decision they want to take on whether to remain religious or accept scientific explanations as absolute. References Hofstede, G. (2012). Culture: The Software of the Mind. New York: FT Press. Schein, E. (2013). Organizational Culture. New York: McGraw Hill.